Marcuse on the Second Nature and the Possibility of Social Change

"a society constantly re-creates, this side of consciousness and ideology, patterns of behavior and aspiration as part of the 'nature' of its people, and unless the revolt reaches into this 'second' nature, into these ingrown patterns, social change will remain 'incomplete,' even self-defeating."

Herbert Marcuse, “A Biological Foundation for Socialism” An Essay on Liberation (Boston, MA: Beacon Press, 1971), p. 11.

Marcuse on the Relationship Between Political and Moral Radicalism

"Political radicalism thus implies moral radicalism: the emergence of a morality which might precondition man for freedom."

Herbert Marcuse, “A Biological Foundation for Socialism” An Essay on Liberation (Boston, MA: Beacon Press, 1971), p. 10.

Marcuse – The Seduction of Exploitation

“The qualitative difference between the existing societies and a free society affects all needs and satisfactions beyond the animal level, that is to say, all those which are essential to the human species, man as a rational animal. All these needs and satisfactions are permeated with the exigencies of profit and exploitation. The entire realm of competitive performances and standardized fun, all the symbols of status, prestige, power, of advertised virility and charm, of commercialized beauty – this entire realm kills in its citizens the very disposition, the organs, for the alternative: freedom without exploitation.”

Herbert Marcuse, “A Biological Foundation for Socialism” An Essay on Liberation (Boston, MA: Beacon Press, 1971), p. 17.

Marcuse – Impoverishment, Imagination, and the Soil of Revolution

“It is not simply the higher standard of living, the illusionary bridging of the consumer gap between the rulers and the ruled, which has obscured the distinction between the real and the immediate interest of the ruled. Marxian theory soon recognized that impoverishment does not necessarily provide the soil for revolution, that a highly developed consciousness and imagination may generate a vital need for radical change in advanced material conditions.”

“The power of corporate capitalism has stifled the emergence of such a consciousness and imagination; its mass media have adjusted the rational and emotional faculties to its market and its policies and steered them to defense of its dominion. The narrowing of the consumption gap has rendered possible the mental and instinctual coordination of the laboring classes: the majority of organized labor shares the stabilizing, counterrevolutionary needs of the middle classes, as evidenced by their behavior as consumers of the material and cultural merchandise, by their emotional revulsion against the nonconformist intelligentsia. Conversely, where the consumer gap is still wide, where capitalistic culture has not yet reached into every house or hut, the system of stabilizing need has its limits; the glaring contrast between the privileged class and the exploited leads to a radicalization of the underprivileged. This is the case of the ghetto population and the unemployed in the United States; this is also the case of the laboring classes in the more backward capitalistic countries.”

Herbert Marcuse, “A Biological Foundation for Socialism” An Essay on Liberation (Boston, MA: Beacon Press, 1971), pp. 15-16.

Marcuse – an Apology for Utopia

“The dynamic of their productivity deprives ‘utopia’ of its traditional unreal content: what is denounced as ‘utopian’ is no longer that which has ‘no place’ and cannot have any place in the historical universe, but rather that which is blocked from coming about by the power of the established societies. Utopian possibilities are inherent in the technical and technological forces of advanced capitalism and socialism: the rational utilization of these forces on a global scale would terminate poverty and scarcity within a very foreseeable future.”

Herbert Marcuse, “Introduction” An Essay on Liberation (Boston, MA: Beacon Press, 1971), pp. 3-4.

Marcuse on the 1968 Student Revolution in France

“They have again raised the specter (and this time a specter which haunts not only the bourgeoisie but all exploitative bureaucracies): the specter of a revolution which subordinates the development of productive forces and higher standards of living to the requirements of creating solidarity for the human species, for abolishing poverty and misery beyond all national frontiers and spheres of interest, for the attainment of peace. In one word: they have taken the idea of revolution out of the continuum of repression and placed it into its authentic dimension – that of liberation.”

Herbert Marcuse, "Preface” An Essay on Liberation (Boston, MA: Beacon Press, 1971), pp. ix-x.

Marcuse – A Strange Statement

“But the perversion of the capabilities of technological reality reveals itself in the fact that the function of politics is joined with that of the entertainment and beauty parlor industry – a fatally premature juncture. When a candidate for the highest political office appears on the television show of a popular comedian, he re-enacts the satyr-play after the ancient tragedy. Finis tragoediae – but it is not so much the hero as the people who would make the ritual sacrifice.”

Herbert Marcuse, "Language and Technological Society" (Boston, MA: Beacon Press), p. 74.

Marcuse – Thesis on Language, Institutions, and Control

“This language controls by reducing the linguistic forms and symbols of reflection, abstraction, development, contradiction: it denies or absorbs the transcendent vocabulary which evokes a qualitatively different dimension of thought and qualitatively different possibilities of action.”

Herbert Marcuse, "Language and Technological Society" (Boston, MA: Beacon Press), p. 73.

Marcuse - Functional Language and History

“Functional language is an unhistorical language: the tendency to identify things with their function destroys the meta-physical grammar which had linked noun-subject-substance-essence, linked in such a manner that the essence was the permanent First Principle. Ground, and Reason of the entire structure. […] It may not be altogether fantastic to associate the repression of development in the functionalized universe of discourse with social repression.”

Herbert Marcuse, "Language and Technological Society" (Boston, MA: Beacon Press), pp. 72-73.

Marcuse on an Alternative to Functionalized Language

“Compared with these constructions, the non-functional substantive, the noun-subject, and the demonstrative and narrative predication are rather abstract forms; they express the transcending universality of the concept, the ‘excess’ of its intent over the term (word) in current usage: thus they retain the tension between the particular and the genus, which is greatly attenuated in the functional construction. […] The grammatical form thus retains the dialectical distinction between the subject and its functions; the proposition contains the negation of the given fact: it links that which is happening to the conditions which made it happen, and allows the reader or listener to follow and reconstruct the development.”

Herbert Marcuse, "Language and Technological Society" (Boston, MA: Beacon Press), p. 72.

The Correlation Between Sexual Liberation and Political Repression

"Thus we are faced with the contradiction that the liberalization of sexuality provides an instinctual basis for the repressive and aggressive power of the affluent society. This contradiction can be resolved if we understand that the liberalization of the Establishment's own morality takes place within the framework of effective controls; kept within this framework, the liberalization strengthens the cohesion of the whole. The relaxation of taboos alleviates the sense of guilt and binds (though with considerable ambivalence) the 'free' individuals libidinally to the institutionalized fathers. [...] On the other hand, if the violation of taboos transcends the sexual sphere and leads to refusal and rebellion, the sense of guilt is not alleviated and repressed but rather transferred: not we, but the fathers, are guilty [...] Instinctual revolt turns into political rebellion, and against this union, the Establishment mobilizes its full force."

Herbert Marcuse, "A Biological Foundation for Socialism?" An Essay on Liberation (Boston: Beacon Press, 1971), p. 9.

Marcuse on Morality as a Political Weapon

"Morality is not necessarily and not primarily ideological. In the face of an amoral society, it becomes a political weapon, an effective force which drives people to burn their draft cards, to ridicule national leaders, to demonstrate in the streets, and to unfold signs saying, 'Thou shalt not kill,' in the nation's churches."

Herbert Marcuse, "A Biological Foundation for Socialism?" An Essay on Liberation (Boston: Beacon Press, 1971), p. 8.

Marcuse on Linguistic Therapy and the Transformation of Moral Standards

"Obscenity is a moral concept in the verbal arsenal of the Establishment [...] obscene is not the ritual of the Hippies but the declaration of a high dignitary of the Church that war is necessary for peace. Linguistic therapy - that is, the effort to free words (and thereby concepts) from the all but total distortion of their meanings by the Establishment - demands the transfer of moral standards (and of their validation) from the Establishment to the revolt against it. Similarly, the sociological and political vocabulary must be radically reshaped: it must be stripped of its false neutrality; it must be methodologically and provocatively 'moralized' in terms of the Refusal."

Herbert Marcuse, "A Biological Foundation for Socialism?" An Essay on Liberation (Boston: Beacon Press, 1971), p. 8.

Marcuse on the Biological Foundation of Rebellion

"What is now at stake are the needs themselves. At this stage, the question is no longer: how can the individual satisfy his own needs without hurting others, but rather how can he satisfy his needs without hurting himself, without reproducing, through his aspirations and satisfactions, his dependence on an exploitative apparatus which, in satisfying his needs, perpetuates his servitude? The advent of a free society would be characterized by the fact that the growth of well-being turns into an essentially new quality of life. This qualitative change must occur in the needs, in the infrastructure of man (itself a dimension of the infrastructure of society): the new direction, the new institutions and relationships of production, must express the ascent needs and satisfactions very different from and even antagonistic to those prevalent in the exploitative societies. Such a change would constitute the instinctual basis for freedom which the long history of class society has blocked. Freedom would become the environment of an organism which is no longer capable of adapting to the competitive performances required for well-being under domination, no longer capable of tolerating the aggressiveness, brutality, and ugliness of the established way of life. The rebellion would then have taken root in the very nature, the 'biology' of the individual..."

Herbert Marcuse, "Introduction" An Essay on Liberation (Boston: Beacon Press, 1971), pp. 4-5.

Marcuse on the Hypnosis of Language Employed by Politicians and Business

"FUNCTIONAL LANGUAGE here reveals its magic element, which is also its essentially political element. [...] Such language is at one and the same time 'intimidation and glorification'; propositions tend to assume the form of suggestive commands; they are evocative rather than demonstrative; prediction becomes prescription - the whole communication has a hypnotic character. [...] The powerless individuals are constantly called upon to identify themselves with the goods, and the politicians incessantly summon them to meet a challenge and to face an issue which is not theirs."

Herbert Marcuse, "Language and Technological Society" (Beacon Press), p. 70.

Marcuse on the Restrictions of Analytic Language

"On the other side, transgression beyond the closed analytical structure is incorrect or propaganda, although the means of enforcing the truth and the degree of punishment are very different. In this universe of public discourse, speech moves in synonyms and tautologies, actually, it never moves toward the qualitative difference. The analytic structure insulates the governing nouns from the negation which their concept in the synthetic proposition involves [...] In this sphere, to identify things with their function is to identify them with their function in their society, and if this identification affects the animate things, men, it may be a highly restrictive and even destructive procedure: although it may have the merit of certainty, it may also succeed in arresting thought."

Herbert Marcuse, "Language and Technological Society" (Beacon Press), p. 69.

Marcuse on Language's use as a Authoritarian Organizer

"On the other side of the fence, ordinary language still is haunted by the big words of higher culture: by the dignity of the individual and the inalienable rights and the philosophy of democracy, etc. However, the defense laboratories and the executive offices, the time keepers and managers, the efficiency experts and the political beauty parlors (which provide the leaders with the appropriate make up) speak a different language, and for the time being they seem to have the last word. And from these centers of organization and manipulation, the word is transmitted and incorporated into the common universe of discourse and behavior. The words thus transmitted is the word which orders and organizes, which induces people to do and to buy and to accept what is offered, to identify themselves with the function they perform in established society, to release all frustration in the (equally organized and controlled) realm of leisure and relaxation. As a consequence, whole dimensions of communication atrophy, or they are ritualized."

Herbert Marcuse, "Language and Technological Society" (Beacon Press), pp. 67-68.

Marcuse on the Production of Language

"Language is literally made by corporate and national Business, by hired researchers, entertainers, press agents, etc. The more blatantly production for profit demands manipulation of needs, the more obviously it depends on mass hypnosis and autosuggestion, the more vanishes the difference between the 'ethics' of business and those of the racket, between selling and cheating, between promoting and poisoning, between truth and lie, sense and non-sense."

Herbert Marcuse, "Language and Technological Society" (Beacon Press), p. 67.

Brecht on Radio

"radio is one-sided when it should be two. It is purely an apparatus for distribution, for mere sharing out. So here is a positive suggestion: change this apparatus over from distribution to communication. The radio would be the finest possible communication apparatus in public life, a vast network of pipes. That is to say, it would be if it knew how to receive as well as transmit, how to let listeners speak as well as hear, how to bring him into a relationship instead of isolating him. On this principle the radio should step out of the supply business and organize its listeners as suppliers. Any attempt by the radio to give a truly public character to public occasions is a step in the right direction."

Bertolt Brecht, Brecht on Theatre: The Development of an Aesthetic, ed. and trans. John Willett (New York: Hill and Wang, 1992), p. 52.

Brecht on Film and Capitalism

"What the film really demands is external action and not introspective psychology. Capitalism operates in this way by taking given needs on a massive scale, exorcizing them, organizing them and mechanizing them so as to revolutionize everything. Great areas of ideology are destroyed when capitalism concentrates on external action, dissolves everything into processes, abandons the hero as the vehicle for everything and mankind as the measure, and thereby smashes the introspective psychology of the bourgeois novel."


Bertolt Brecht, Brecht on Theatre: The Development of an Aesthetic, ed. and trans. John Willett (New York: Hill and Wang, 1992), p. 50.

Bertolt on the Pallatives that Distract us from Real Life

"The life imposed on us is too hard; it brings us too many agonies, disappointments, impossible tasks. In order to stand it we have to have some kind of palliative. There seems to be three classes of these: overpowering distractions, which allow us to find our sufferings unimportant, pseudo-satisfactions which reduce them and drugs which make us insensitive to them. The pseudo-satisfactions offered by art are illusions if compared with reality, but are none the less psychologically effective for that, thanks to the part played by the imagination in our inner life. (Freud: Das Unbehagen in der Kulter, page 22.) Such drugs are sometimes responsible for the wastage of great energy which might have been applied to bettering the human lot."

Bertolt Brecht, Brecht on Theatre: The Development of an Aesthetic, ed. and trans. John Willett (New York: Hill and Wang, 1992), p. 41.

Brecht on the Significance of the Open Exchange of Ideas

"Why the refusal to discuss? Answer: nothing can come of discussion. To discuss the present form of our society, or even of one of its least important parts, would lead inevitably and at once to an outright threat to our society's form as such."

Bertolt Brecht, Brecht on Theatre: The Development of an Aesthetic, ed. and trans. John Willett (New York: Hill and Wang, 1992), p. 41.

Brecht Bashing Wagnerites

"Those composers who stem from Wagner still insist on posing as philosophers. A philosophy which is of no use to man or beast, and can only be disposed of as a means of sensual satisfaction."

Bertolt Brecht, Brecht on Theatre: The Development of an Aesthetic, ed. and trans. John Willett (New York: Hill and Wang, 1992), p. 39.

Brecht on Innovating Opera's Social Function

"Once the context becomes, technically speaking, an independent component, to which text, music and setting 'adopt attitudes'; once illusion is sacrificed to free discussion, and once the spectator, instead of being enabled to have an experience, is forced as it were to cast his vote; then a change has been launched which goes far beyond formal matters and begins for the first time to affect the theatre's social function."

Bertolt Brecht, Brecht on Theatre: The Development of an Aesthetic, ed. and trans. John Willett (New York: Hill and Wang, 1992), p. 39.

Brecht on the Relationship between Intellectuals and Business

"For a long time now they have taken the handiwork (music, writing, criticism, etc.) of intellectuals who share in their profits - that is, of men who are economically committed to the prevailing system but are socially near-proletarian - and processed it to make fodder for their public entertainment machine, judging it by their own standards and guiding it into their own channels; meanwhile the intellectuals themselves have gone on supposing that the whole business is concerned only with the presentation of their work, is a secondary process which has no influence over their work but merely wins influence for it. [...] Their output becomes a matter of delivering the goods."

Bertolt Brecht, Brecht on Theatre: The Development of an Aesthetic, ed. and trans. John Willett (New York: Hill and Wang, 1992), p. 34.

Brecht on Der Flug der Lindberghs and the Radio

"Der Flug der Lindberghs is not intended to be of use to the present-day radio but to alter it. The increasing concentration of mechanical mean and the increasingly specialized training - tendencies that should be accelerated - call for a kind of resistance by the listener, and for his mobilization and redrafting as a producer."

Bertolt Brecht, Brecht on Theatre: The Development of an Aesthetic, ed. and trans. John Willett (New York: Hill and Wang, 1992), p. 32.

Benjamin on Baudelaire

"Of all the experiences which made his life what it was, Baudelaire singled out being jostled by the crowd as the decisive, unmistakable experience. The semblance of a crowd with a soul and movement all its own, the luster that had dazzled the flâneur, had faded for him. To heighten the impression of the crowd's baseness, he envisioned the day on which even the fallen women, the outcasts, would readily espouse a well-ordered life, condemn libertinism, and reject everything except money. Betrayed by these last allies of his, Baudelaire battled the crowd - with the impotent rage of someone fighting the rain or the wind. This is the nature of the immediate experience to which Baudelaire has given the weight of long experience. He named the price for which the sensation of modernity could be had: the disintegration of the aura in immediate shock experience. He paid dearly for consenting to the disintegration - but it is the law of his poetry. This poetry appears in the sky of the Second Empire as 'a star without atmosphere.'"

Walter Benjamin, "On Some Motifs in Baudelaire" in Selected Writings, vol. 4, 1938-1940, ed. Howard Eiland and Michael W. Jennings, trans. Edmund Jephcott (Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press, 2006), p. 343.

Benjamin - Gaze and Aura

"Experience of the aura thus arises from the fact that a response characteristic of human relationships is transposed to the relationship between humans and inanimate objects. The person we look at, or who feels he is being looked at, looks at us in turn. To experience the aura of an object we look at means to invest it with the ability to look back at us."

Walter Benjamin, "On Some Motifs in Baudelaire" in Selected Writings, vol. 4, 1938-1940, ed. Howard Eiland and Michael W. Jennings, trans. Edmund Jephcott (Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press, 2006), p. 338

Benjamin - The Absence of Beauty in Technological Reproduction

"Insofar as art aims at the beautiful and, on however modest a scale, 'reproduces' it, it retrieves (as Faust does Helen) out of the depths of time. This does not happen in the case of technological reproduction. (The beautiful has no place in it.)"

Walter Benjamin, "On Some Motifs in Baudelaire" in Selected Writings, vol. 4, 1938-1940, ed. Howard Eiland and Michael W. Jennings, trans. Edmund Jephcott (Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press, 2006), p. 338

Benjamin - Technology's Training of the Human Subject

"Whereas Poe's passers-by cast glances in all directions, seemingly without cause, today's pedestrians are obliged to look about them so that they can be aware of traffic signals. Thus, technology has subjected the human sensorium to a complex kind of training. There came a day when a new and urgent need for stimuli was met by film. In a film, perception conditioned shock was established as a formal principle. What determines the rhythm of production on a conveyor belt is the same thing that underlies the rhythm of reception in the film."

Walter Benjamin, "On Some Motifs in Baudelaire" in Selected Writings, vol. 4, 1938-1940, ed. Howard Eiland and Michael W. Jennings, trans. Edmund Jephcott (Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press, 2006), p. 328.

Benjamin - War, Alienation, Annilhilation, and Aestheticization

"Humankind, which once, in Homer, was an object of contemplation for the Olympian gods, has now become one for itself. Its self-alienation has reached the point where it can experience its own annihilation as a supreme aesthetic pleasure. Such is the aestheticizing of politics, as practiced by fascism. Communism replies by politicizing art."

Walter Benjamin, "The Work of Art in the Age of Its Technological Reproducibility" in Selected Writings, vol. 4, 1938-1940, ed. Howard Eiland and Michael W. Jennings, trans. Edmund Jephcott (Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press, 2006), p. 270

Benjamin - War and the Uprising of Technology

"Imperialist war is an uprising on the part of technology, which demands repayment in 'human material' for the natural material society has denied it."

Walter Benjamin, "The Work of Art in the Age of Its Technological Reproducibility" in Selected Writings, vol. 4, 1938-1940, ed. Howard Eiland and Michael W. Jennings, trans. Edmund Jephcott (Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press, 2006), p. 270

Benjamin - War as an Organizing Force for the Masses

"All efforts to aestheticize politics culminate in one point. That one point is war. War, and only war, makes it possible to set a goal for mass movements on the grandest of scale while preserving traditional property relations."

Walter Benjamin, "The Work of Art in the Age of Its Technological Reproducibility" in Selected Writings, vol. 4, 1938-1940, ed. Howard Eiland and Michael W. Jennings, trans. Edmund Jephcott (Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press, 2006), p. 269.

Benjamin - Fascism, Property, Relations, and Aestheticization of Political Life

"Fascism attempts to organize the newly proletarianized masses while leaving intact the property relations which they strove to abolish. It sees its salvation in granting expression to the masses - but on no account granting them rights. The masses have a right to changed property relations; fascism seeks to give them expression in keeping those relations unchanged. The logical outcome of fascism is an aestheticizing of political life. The violation of the masses, whom fascism, with its Führer cult, forces to their knees, has its counterpart in the violation of an apparatus which is pressed into serving the production of ritual values."

Walter Benjamin, "The Work of Art in the Age of Its Technological Reproducibility" in Selected Writings, vol. 4, 1938-1940, ed. Howard Eiland and Michael W. Jennings, trans. Edmund Jephcott (Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press, 2006), p. 269.

Benjamin - Contemplation and Habit as Modes of Reception

"For the tasks which face the human apparatus of perception at historical turning points cannot be performed solely by optical means - that is, by way of contemplation. They are mastered gradually - taking their cue from tactile reception - through habit."

"Reception in distraction - the sort of reception which is increasingly noticeable in all areas of art and is a symptom of profound changes in apperception - finds in film its true training ground. Film, by virtue of its shock effects, is predisposed to this form of reception."

Walter Benjamin, "The Work of Art in the Age of Its Technological Reproducibility" in Selected Writings, vol. 4, 1938-1940, ed. Howard Eiland and Michael W. Jennings, trans. Edmund Jephcott (Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press, 2006), pp. 268-269.

Benjamin - Scientific and Artistic Fucntions of Film

"Demonstrating that the artistic uses of photography are identical to its scientific uses - these two dimensions having usually been separated until now - will be one of the revolutionary functions of film."

"It is through the camera that we first discover the optical unconscious, just as we discover the instinctual unconscious through psychoanalysis."

Walter Benjamin, "The Work of Art in the Age of Its Technological Reproducibility" in Selected Writings, vol. 4, 1938-1940, ed. Howard Eiland and Michael W. Jennings, trans. Edmund Jephcott (Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press, 2006), pp. 265-266.

Benjamin - Reproducibility led to the Disappearance of Art's seeming Autonomy

"The nineteenth-century dispute over the relative artistic merits of painting and photography seems misguided and confused today. But this does not diminish its importance, and may even underscore it. Insofar as the age of technological reproducibility separated art from its basis in cult, all semblance of art's autonomy disappeared forever."

Walter Benjamin, "The Work of Art in the Age of Its Technological Reproducibility" in Selected Writings, vol. 4, 1938-1940, ed. Howard Eiland and Michael W. Jennings, trans. Edmund Jephcott (Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press, 2006), p. 258.

Benjamin - The Reception of Art as either Cultic or Exhibitionistic

"With the emancipation of specific artistic practices from the service of ritual, the opportunities for exhibiting their products increase."

"In photography, exhibition value begins to drive back cult value on all fronts. But cult value does not give way without resistance. It falls back to a last entrenchment: the human countenance. It is no accident that the portrait is central to early photography. In the cult of remembrance of dead or absent loved ones, the cult value of the image finds its last refuge. In the fleeting expression of a human face, the aura beckons from early photographs for the last time."

Walter Benjamin, "The Work of Art in the Age of Its Technological Reproducibility" in Selected Writings, vol. 4, 1938-1940, ed. Howard Eiland and Michael W. Jennings, trans. Edmund Jephcott (Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press, 2006), pp. 257-258.

Benjamin - the Demise of Ritual and Rise of Politics

"technological reproducibility emancipates the work of art from its parasitic subservience to ritual. [...] But as soon as the criterion of authenticity ceases to be applied to artistic production, the whole social function of art is revolutionized. Instead of being founded on ritual, it is based on a different practice: politics."


Walter Benjamin, "The Work of Art in the Age of Its Technological Reproducibility" in Selected Writings, vol. 4, 1938-1940, ed. Howard Eiland and Michael W. Jennings, trans. Edmund Jephcott (Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press, 2006), p. 257.

Benjamin - Art and Ritual

"it is highly significant that the artwork's auratic mode of existence is never entirely severed from its ritual function. In other words: the unique value of the 'authentic' work of art has its basis in ritual, the source of its original use value."

Walter Benjamin, "The Work of Art in the Age of Its Technological Reproducibility" in Selected Writings, vol. 4, 1938-1940, ed. Howard Eiland and Michael W. Jennings, trans. Edmund Jephcott (Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press, 2006), p. 256.